Antes de...

Thanking God for the Blessings granted through the whole year, remembering in this time of year to appreciate family, friends and all people involved in our lives(My Students) (work, gym, doctor, hairdressers, the girls from the nail salon,the pharmacist, etc.) that we wish them the best, Gods Blessings on this Christmas time. Hope that God grants all your Christmas wishes, but above all, I hope that he give us all, peace, prosperity, love, health and friendships for life.
 MERRY CHRISTMAS.

Gust of Wind with lyrics

Hello Lyrics

Rosa Maria

paris oh la la LYRICS

I see fire. Ed Sheeran

make it rain

hello

poetry

devices

lit devices

lit genres pic

literary devices

literary genres

elements of plot defined

Elements of Plot

When we describe plot, most students will say that it is, "When so-and-so-happens, then,...." But it is more than a series of  events.  It is a pattern of all of the things that permit the story to continue.

It wasn't until Gustav Freytag (1816 - 1895), a German dramatist and novelist first described the structure for the way stories are told in ancient Greek and Shakespearean drama. He divided a play into five parts:

1. exposition
2. rising action
3. climax
4. falling action
5. resolution and denouement

The exposition contains all of the necessary background information that is needed to understand the story. This information can include the characters, setting, etc.. The dramatic situation is usually placed here-- the conflict under which the characters are motivated and their obstacles they have to overcome.

The rising action is what happens before the climax. The rising contains complications--anything that changes the motivation or obstacles of the characters: another bad guy is introduced, the hero is cast adrift to deal with new problems, etc.

The climax is considered the highest point of interest of the story. This is where all the action of the story reaches a peak. It is usually the moment of greatest tension. The crisis can be considered the complication right before the climax, or can also be used as another name for climax.

Falling Action
The falling action deals with events which occur right after the climax. These events are usually the after-effects of the climax.

Resolution/Denouement
This is the end of the falling action and the conclusion to the story. Denouement comes from the French word, denoer, which meant "to untie". The denouement is the "unraveling or untying" of the plot.

Elements of Plot

Types of essay, thought that you could use the info.

Four types of essay: expository, persuasive, analytical, argumentative

For our academic writing purposes we will focus on four types of essay. 

1) The expository essay

 

What is it?This is a writer’s explanation of a short theme, idea or issue.

The key here is that you are explaining an issue, theme or idea to your intended audience. Your reaction to a work of literature could be in the form of an expository essay, for example if you decide to simply explain your personal response to a work. The expository essay can also be used to give a personal response to a world event, political debate, football game, work of art and so on.

What are its most important qualities?You want to get and, of course, keep your reader’s attention. So, you should:

• Have a well defined thesis. Start with a thesis statement/research question/statement of intent. Make sure you answer your question or do what you say you set out to do. Do not wander from your topic. 
• Provide evidence to back up what you are saying. Support your arguments with facts and reasoning. Do not simply list facts, incorporate these as examples supporting your position, but at the same time make your point as succinctly as possible. 
• The essay should be concise. Make your point and conclude your essay. Don’t make the mistake of believing that repetition and over-stating your case will score points with your readers.

 

2) The persuasive essay

What is it?This is the type of essay where you try to convince the reader to adopt your position on an issue or point of view.

Here your rationale, your argument, is most important. You are presenting an opinion and trying to persuade readers, you want to win readers over to your point of view.

What are its most important qualities?

• Have a definite point of view. 
• Maintain the reader’s interest. 
• Use sound reasoning. 
• Use solid evidence. 
• Be aware of your intended audience. How can you win them over? 
• Research your topic so your evidence is convincing. 
• Don’t get so sentimental or so passionate that you lose the reader, as Irish poet W. B. Yeats put it:
  The best lack all conviction, while the worst
  Are full of passionate intensity
• Your purpose is to convince someone else so don’t overdo your language and don’t bore the reader. And don’t keep repeating your points! 
• Remember the rules of the good paragraph. One single topic per paragraph, and natural progression from one to the next. 
• End with a strong conclusion. 

3) The analytical essay

What is it?In this type of essay you analyze, examine and interpret such things as an event, book, poem, play or other work of art. 
What are its most important qualities?Your analytical essay should have an:

• Introduction and presentation of argument
  The introductory paragraph is used to tell the reader what text or texts you will be discussing. Every literary work raises at least one major issue. In your introduction you will also define the idea or issue of the text that you wish to examine in your analysis. This is sometimes called the thesis or research question. It is important that you narrow the focus of your essay.
• Analysis of the text (the longest part of the essay)
  The issue you have chosen to analyze is connected to your argument. After stating the problem, present your argument. When you start analyzing the text, pay attention to the stylistic devices (the “hows” of the text) the author uses to convey some specific meaning. You must decide if the author accomplishes his goal of conveying his ideas to the reader. Do not forget to support your assumptions with examples and reasonable judgment.
• Personal response
  Your personal response will show a deeper understanding of the text and by forming a personal meaning about the text you will get more out of it. Do not make the mistake of thinking that you only have to have a positive response to a text. If a writer is trying to convince you of something but fails to do so, in your opinion, your critical personal response can be very enlightening. The key word here is critical. Base any objections on the text and use evidence from the text. Personal response should be in evidence throughout the essay, not tacked on at the end. 
• Conclusion (related to the analysis and the argument)
  Your conclusion should explain the relation between the analyzed text and the presented argument.

Tips for writing analytical essays:

• Be well organized. Plan what you want to write before you start. It is a good idea to know exactly what your conclusion is going to be before you start to write. When you know where you are going, you tend to get there in a well organized way with logical progression.
• Analytical essays normally use the present tense. When talking about a text, write about it in the present tense. 
• Be “objective”: avoid using the first person too much. For example, instead of saying “I think Louisa is imaginative because…”, try: “It appears that Louisa has a vivid imagination, because…”. 
• Do not use slang or colloquial language (the language of informal speech). 
• Do not use contractions. 
• Avoid using “etc.” This is an expression that is generally used by writers who have nothing more to say. 
• Create an original title, do not use the title of the text. 
• Analysis does not mean retelling the story. Many students fall into the trap of telling the reader what is happening in the text instead of analyzing it. Analysis aims to explain how the writer makes us see what he or she wants us to see, the effect of the writing techniques, the text’s themes and your personal response to these.

4) The argumentative essay

What is it?This is the type of essay where you prove that your opinion, theory or hypothesis about an issue is correct or more truthful than those of others. In short, it is very similar to the persuasive essay (see above), but the difference is that you are arguing for your opinion as opposed to others, rather than directly trying to persuade someone to adopt your point of view.

What are its most important qualities?

• The argument should be focused
• The argument should be a clear statement (a question cannot be an argument)
• It should be a topic that you can support with solid evidence
• The argumentative essay should be based on pros and cons (see below)
• Structure your approach well (see below)
• Use good transition words/phrases (see below)
• Be aware of your intended audience. How can you win them over?
• Research your topic so your evidence is convincing.
• Don’t overdo your language and don’t bore the reader. And don’t keep repeating your points!
• Remember the rules of the good paragraph. One single topic per paragraph, and natural progression from one to the next.
• End with a strong conclusion.

Tips for writing argumentative essays:
1) Make a list of the pros and cons in your plan before you start writing. Choose the most important that support your argument (the pros) and the most important to refute (the cons) and focus on them.
2) The argumentative essay has three approaches. Choose the one that you find most effective for your argument. Do you find it better to “sell” your argument first and then present the counter arguments and refute them? Or do you prefer to save the best for last?

• Approach 1:
  Thesis statement (main argument):
  Pro idea 1
  Pro idea 2
  Con(s) + Refutation(s): these are the opinions of others that you disagree with. You must clearly specify these opinions if you are to refute them convincingly.
  Conclusion
• Approach 2:
  Thesis statement:
  Con(s) + Refutation(s)
  Pro idea 1
  Pro idea 2
  Conclusion
• Approach 3
  Thesis statement:
  Con idea 1 and the your refutation
  Con idea 2 and the your refutation
  Con idea 3 and the your refutation
  Conclusion

3) Use good transition words when moving between arguments and most importantly when moving from pros to cons and vice versa. For example:

• While I have shown that.... other may say
• Opponents of this idea claim / maintain that …            
• Those who disagree claim that …
• While some people may disagree with this idea...

When you want to refute or counter the cons you may start with:

• However,
• Nonetheless,
• but
• On the other hand,
• This claim notwithstanding

If you want to mark your total disagreement:

• After seeing this evidence, it is impossible to agree with what they say
• Their argument is irrelevant
• Contrary to what they might think ...

These are just a few suggestions. You can, of course, come up with many good transitions of your own.
4) Use facts, statistics, quotes and examples to convince your readers of your argument

courtly love

                                        T H E  A RT OF COURTLY  LOVE   1185
Andreas Capellanus
Courtly love refers to a code of behavior followed by aristocratic lovers in Europe in the Middle Ages. Courtly love required that lovers show their devotion by writing romantic poetry, performing heroic deeds, and remaining utterly faithful to one other. Writers composed rules for courtly love. In the following selection, Andreas Capellanus, a chaplain at a French court, describes love, its effects, and how it is acquired.

THINK THROUGH HISTORY: Summarizing According to Capellanus, what are some of the main effects of love?
What Love Is ...
Love is a certain inborn suffering derived from the sight of and excessive meditation upon the beauty of the opposite sex, which causes each one to wish above all things the embraces of the other and by common desire to carry out all of love’s precepts in the other’s embrace. That love is suffering is easy to see, for before the love becomes equally balanced on both sides there is no torment greater, since the lover is always in fear that his love may not gain its desire and that he is wasting his efforts. He fears, too, that rumors of it may get abroad, and he fears everything that might harm it in any way, for before things are perfected a slight disturbance often spoils them. If he is a poor man, he also fears that the woman may scorn his poverty; if he is ugly, he fears that she may despise his lack of beauty or may give her love to a more handsome man; if he is rich, he fears that his parsimony in the past may stand in his way. To tell the truth, no one can number the fears of one single lover. This kind of love, then, is a suffering which is felt by only one of the persons and may be called “single love.” But even after both are in love the fears that arise are just as great, for each of the lovers fears that what he has acquired with so much effort may be lost through the effort of someone else, which is certainly much worse for a man than if, having no hope, he sees that his efforts are accomplishing nothing, for it is worse to lose the things you are seeking than to be deprived of a gain you merely hope for. The lover fears, too, that he may offend his loved one in some way; indeed he fears so many things that it would be difficult to tell them. . . .

World History: Patterns of Interaction © McDougal Littell Inc.

1 What The Effect of Love Is Now it is the effect of love that a true lover cannot be degraded with any avarice. Love causes a rough and uncouth man to be distinguished for his handsomeness; it can endow a man even of the humblest birth with nobility of character; it blesses the proud with humility; and the man in love becomes accustomed to performing many services gracefully for everyone. O what a wonderful thing is love, which makes a man shine with so many virtues and teaches everyone, no matter who he is, so many good traits of character! There is another thing about love that we should not praise in few words: it adorns a man, so to speak, with the virtue of chastity, because he who shines with the light of one love can hardly think of embracing another woman, even a beautiful one. For when he thinks deeply of his beloved the sight of any other woman seems to his mind rough and rude. . . .

In What Manner Love May Be Acquired, and in How Many Ways It remains next to be seen in what ways love may be acquired.

The teaching of some people is said to be that there are five means by which it may be acquired: a beautiful figure, excellence of character, extreme readiness of speech, great wealth, and the readiness with which one grants that which is sought. But we hold that love may be acquired only by the first three, and we think that the last two ought to be banished completely from Love’s court, as I shall show you when I come to the proper place in my system. A beautiful figure wins love with very little effort, especially when the lover who is sought is simple, for a simple lover thinks that there is nothing to look for in one’s beloved besides a beautiful figure and face and a body well cared for. I do not particularly blame the love of such people, but neither do I have much approval for it, because love between uncautious and unskilled lovers cannot long be concealed, and so from the first it fails to increase. . . . A wise woman will therefore seek as a lover a man of praiseworthy character— not one who anoints himself all over like a woman or makes a rite of the care of the body, for it does not go with a masculine figure to adorn oneself in womanly fashion or to be devoted to the care of the body. It was people like this the admirable Ovid meant when he said, Let young men who are decked out like women stay far away from me, A manly form wants to be cared for within moderate limits. Likewise, if you see a woman too heavily rouged you will not be taken in by her beauty unless you have already discovered that she is good company besides, since a woman who puts all her reliance on her rouge usually doesn’t have any particular gifts of character. As I said about men, so with women—I believe you should not seek for beauty so much as for excellence of character. . . .

Source: Excerpt from The Art of Courtly Love by Andreas Capellanus, translated by John Jay Parry (New York: Columbia University Press, 1941). Copyright © 1990 by Columbia University Press. Reprinted with permission of the publisher. from The Art of Courtly Love World History: Patterns of Interaction © McDougal Littell Inc. 2 THINK THROUGH HISTOR Y : ANSWER According to Capellanus, love causes people to improve their character. He claims that it can cause men to become handsome, noble, faithful, and generous.

Andreas Capellanus (De arte honeste amandi),

Andreas Capellanus was the twelfth century author of a treatise commonly titled De amore ("About Love"), also known as De arte honeste amandi, for which a possible English translation is The Art of Courtly Love. His real identity has never been determined, but has been a matter of extended academic debate. Andreas Capellanus is sometimes known by a French translation of his name, André le Chapelain.

His work

De Amore was written sometime between 1186 and 1190. It was most likely intended for the French court of Philip Augustus. It has been supposed to have been written in 1185 at the request of Marie de Champagne, daughter of King Louis VII of France and of Eleanor of Aquitaine. A dismissive allusion in the text to the "wealth of Hungary" has suggested the hypothesis that it was written after 1184, at the time when Bela III of Hungary had sent to the French court a statement of his income and had proposed marriage to Marie's sister Marguerite of France, but before 1186, when his proposal was accepted.

John Jay Parry, who edited De Amore, has described it as "one of those capital works which reflect the thought of a great epoch, which explains the secret of a civilization." It may be viewed as didactic, mocking, or merely descriptive; in any event it preserves the attitudes and practices that were the foundation of a long and significant tradition in Western literature.

The social system of "courtly love", as gradually elaborated by the Provençal troubadours from the mid twelfth-century, soon spread. It is often associated with Eleanor of Aquitaine (herself the granddaughter of an early troubadour poet, William IX of Aquitaine), but this is pure conjecture. It has been claimed that De Amore codifies the social and sexual life of Eleanor's court at Poitiers between 1169 and 1174 because the author mentions both Eleanor and her daughter Marie by name; but there is no evidence that Marie ever saw her mother again after Eleanor's divorce from Louis VII in 1152.

The basic conception of Capellanus is that courtly love ennobles both the lover and the beloved, provided that certain codes of behaviour are respected. Interestingly, De amore describes the affection between spousesas an unrelated emotion, stating that "love can have no place between husband and wife," although they may feel even "immoderate affection" for one another. Rather, the most ennobling love is generally secret and extremely difficult to obtain, serving as a means for inspiring men to great deeds.

Book I: After an introductory analysis of "What love is" (Parry, pp. 28–36), Book One of De Amore sets out a series of nine imaginary dialogues (pp. 36–141) between men and women of different social classes, from bourgeoisie to royalty. In each dialogue the man is pleading inconclusively to be accepted as the woman's lover, and in each he finds some small reason for optimism. The dialogs are delightful compositions, with many well-crafted arguments (albeit based on medieval rather than modern concepts) by both the ardent suitor and the skeptical lady; typically, the older man asks to be rewarded for his accomplishments whereas the young men or men of lower birth ask to be given inspiration so that they might accomplish something. These dialogues are followed by short discussions of love with priests, with nuns, for money, with peasant women, and with prostitutes (pp. 141–150).

Book II: This book takes love as established, and begins with a discussion of how love is maintained and how and why it comes to an end (pp. 151–167). Following this comes a series of twenty-one "judgements of love" (pp. 167–177), said to have been pronounced in contentious cases by great ladies. Among these, three judgements are attributed to "Queen Eleanor" and another four simply to "the Queen", seven to Eleanor's daughter Marie of Troyes ("the Countess of Champagne"), two to Eleanor's niece Isabelle of Vermandois ("the Countess of Flanders", daughter of Petronilla of Aquitaine), one to "a court of ladies in Gascony", and five to Viscountess Ermengarde of Narbonne, who is thus singled out as the only patron of a "Court of Love" not belonging to the immediate family of Eleanor of Aquitaine. However, it has been suggested that "the Queen" is not Eleanor but Adèle of Champagne, Eleanor's successor as wife of Louis VII and Queen of France. Book Two concludes (pp. 177–186) by setting out "The Rules of Love".

Book III: This book is the briefest (pp. 187–212), and is titled "The Rejection of Love". This book seeks to remedy the natural affection of men for women, by painting all women as disgusting as possible in so few words. For example, women are described as being completely untrustworthy ("everything a woman says is said with the intention of deceiving"), insanely greedy and willing to do anything for food, weak-minded and easily swayed by false reasoning, "slanderers filled with envy and hate," drunkards, loud-mouthed and gossipy, unfaithful in love, disobedient, vain and tortured by envy of all other women's beauty, "even her daughter's." The historical example of Eve is cited at several points as evidence. This book is a disclaimer for the rest of the work—as is evidenced by its heading. It includes reasons why love affairs of the sort found in this book should not be conducted, and that personal abstinence from love was the preferred route. Capellanus states that this abstinence would allow one to “win an eternal recompense and thereby deserve a greater reward from God.” This last book constitutes one reason not to take the bulk of Capellanus' work at face value. Though some social practices acceptable during the Middle Ages may be reflected in Capellanus' work, it cannot be clearly demonstrated to be a reliable source on the common medieval attitude to "courtly love."

De Amore gives a listing of the stages of love, which resembles in some ways the modern baseball euphemism:

"Throughout all the ages, there have been only four degrees [gradus] in love:

"The first consists in arousing hope;

"The second in offering kisses;

"The third in the enjoyment of intimate embraces;

"The fourth in the abandonment of the entire person."

Courtly Love Rules

Rules of Courtly Love The following set of rules is based on the De Amore of Andreas Capellanus, as adapted in Appendix 1 of Ann S. Haskell's A Middle English Anthology (Detroit: Wayne State UP, 1985). To find out more about Andreas Capellanus, click here. 1. Marriage should not be a deterrent to love. 2. Love cannot exist in the individual who cannot be jealous. 3. A double love cannot obligate an individual. 4. Love constantly waxes and wanes. 5. That which is not given freely by the object of one's love loses its savor. 6. It is necessary for a male to reach the age of maturity in order to love. 7. A lover must observe a two-year widowhood after his beloved's death. 8. Only the most urgent circumstances should deprive one of love. 9. Only the insistence of love can motivate one to love. 10. Love cannot coexist with avarice. 11. A lover should not love anyone who would be an embarrassing marriage choice. 12. True love excludes all from its embrace but the beloved. 13. Public revelation of love is deadly to love in most instances. 14. The value of love is commensurate with its difficulty of attainment. 15. The presence of one's beloved causes palpitation of the heart. 16. The sight of one's beloved causes palpitations of the heart. 17. A new love brings an old one to a finish. 18. Good character is the one real requirement for worthiness of love. 19. When love grows faint its demise is usually certain. 20. Apprehension is the constant companion of true love. 21. Love is reinforced by jealousy. 22. Suspicion of the beloved generates jealousy and therefore intensifies love. 23. Eating and sleeping diminish greatly when one is aggravated by love. 24. The lover's every deed is performed with the thought of his beloved in mind. 25. Unless it please his beloved, no act or thought is worthy to the lover. 26. Love is powerless to hold anything from love. 27. There is no such thing as too much of the pleasure of one's beloved. 28. Presumption on the part of the beloved causes suspicion in the lover. 29. Aggravation of excessive passion does not usually afflict the true lover. 30. Thought of the beloved never leaves the true lover. 31. Two men may love one woman or two women one man.

Courtly Love New Lesson Study for Assessment soon

Medieval Romance

Medieval Romance:
As a literary genre of high culture, romance or chivalric romance is a type of prose and verse narrative that was popular in the aristocratic circles of High Medieval and Early Modern Europe.

Definition: Medieval romances are narrative fictions representing the adventures and values of the aristocracy.  Romances may be written in prose, in which case they tend to resemble "histories" .

  Characters nearly always are, or are revealed to be, knights, ladies, kings, queens, and other assorted nobles.  

Plots often involve conflicts between feudal allegiances, pursuit of quests (by males) and endurance of ordeals (by females), and the progress or failure of love relationships, often adulterous or among unmarried members of the court.  

Romances typically stress the protagonists' character development over any minor characters, and nearly all seem like "type characters" to modern readers used to full psychological realism. 

* Marvels, especially the supernatural, routinely occur in romance plots, whereas they are viewed with skepticism in histories, though they also are positively necessary to saint's lives, a narrative form which resembles both histories and romance. 

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There are numerous elements common to the medieval romance. Depending on who you ask and where you look, you may find different answers, but there are four elements that are found pretty much across the board.

First, medieval romances idealize chivalry. The heroes always manifest the qualities of a kind, self-less and charitable knight.

Secondly, most medieval romances have a vague or even sometimes imaginary setting. The romance is TRULY the center of the story, so where it takes place isn't as important. The lack of actual setting also allows the reader to more easily put him or herself in the situations.

Third, medieval romances rely on elements of the supernatural to create mystery and suspense. Whether it's a mystical creature, and supernatural setting, or seemingly normal characters possessing one strangely supernatural quality, this element is key in this type of literature.

Lastly, and arguably most importantly, is the element of the romance. The knight's love for his lady - a love of complete and total devotion - is what drives medieval romances throughout.

London plagues 1348–1665
Many people have heard of the Black Death of 1348 and the Great Plague of
1665: both terrible outbreaks of a disease which killed thousands of Londoners.
However, it is less well-known that these famous outbreaks are only two of
nearly 40 that London suffered between 1348 and 1665.
A major outbreak of the disease struck roughly every 20-30 years, killing around
20% of London’s population each time. There were lesser outbreaks in-between
the major ones and sometimes the disease could continue for several years in a
less serious form.
What is ‘plague’?
Engraving of plague victims,
by John Dunstall, 1666
There is still debate about what these ‘plagues’ actually were. Most experts believe that the
plague that struck London from the 1300s to the late 1600s was bubonic plague. Bubonic
plague is a disease of rodents, especially black rats. It is passed between them by bites from
their fleas. When a rat dies from the plague, its fleas must find a new host to live on. If their
new host is a person, the disease can spread to humans too. If this happens, 60–80% of
those with the disease die, most within a week. Plague can spread quickly within a
household, as this picture shows. In it several people are lying ill in bed while being cared
for by nurses.
The French doctor Alexandre Yersin discovered the bacterium that causes
bubonic plague in 1894. In 1908 experts realised that rat fleas spread plague.
• headaches
• fever
• vomiting
• painful swellings on the neck,
armpits and groin (buboes)
• blisters and bruises
• coughing up blood.
The disease takes many forms but the
most common symptoms are:
2
© Museum of London 2011
In 1347 news reached England of a horrifying
and incurable disease that was spreading from
Asia through North Africa and Europe. The Black
Death struck London in the autumn of 1348.
No one knew how to stop the disease. During the
next 18 months it killed half of all Londoners –
perhaps 40,000 people.
There were so many dead that Londoners had
to dig mass graves (large trenches for many
bodies). This picture shows one of these graves,
which was excavated by archaeologists at the
Royal Mint site near the Tower of London. In
some of the trenches, the bodies were piled
on top of each other, up to five deep. Children’s
bodies were placed in the small spaces between
adults. By 1350 the Black Death had killed
millions of people, possibly half the population
of the known world.
Photograph of one of the mass graves
discovered by archaeologists near the
Tower of London
The term ‘Black Death’ was first used in the 1800s. Medieval people called the
disease the ‘Great Pestilence’.
Many people believed the plague spread through bad air so they smoked
tobacco to stop any bad air entering their lungs.
After the Black Death, plague returned to London many times until its
last major outbreak in 1665. The disease usually spread from Asia or
the Middle East across Europe to England. People were particularly
frightened of the plague because its victims died so quickly and very
few recovered. The worst bout of plague was in 1563, when 24%
(nearly a quarter) of London’s population died.
Plague bell, 1600s
Other London plague outbreaks
The Black Death, 1348–1350
In 1518 the first regulations to stop plague were introduced in
London. A bale of straw had to be hung on a pole outside
infected houses for 40 days. People from infected homes had
to carry a white stick when they went out to warn others to
stay away. More rules were gradually added over the years,
such as putting a cross on the door of plague-ridden houses,
only burying the dead at night, and ringing a bell like this one
for 45 minutes for each burial. The noise of bells ringing
during burials was meant to remind people to follow the
plague prevention rules.
3
© Museum of London 2011
The Great Plague of 1665 was the last major plague in England. The outbreak began in
London in February. Within seven months 100,000 Londoners (20% or one-fifth of the
population) were dead. Many fled the capital to escape the disease. Victims were shut in
their homes and a red cross was painted on the door with the words ‘Lord have mercy
upon us’. The theatres and other public entertainments such as football were banned to
stop the disease spreading.
Every week, each London parish recorded the number of people who had died. The
numbers from all the parishes were added up and printed in lists called mortality bills.
This is a bill from the week in September which had the highest total of plague dead:
7,165 people. From then on the number of people dying gradually dropped. By December
the people who had fled the plague started to move back to London and life slowly
returned to normal.
People thought that animals might spread the disease so strays were killed by
special dog killers – around 40,000 dogs and 200,000 cats were slaughtered.
The Great Plague of 1665
Mortality bill listing the number of people who had died in London from 19–26 September 1665
4
© Museum of London 2011
See also
Collections Online is an online database
which allows users to find out more about
the Museum of London’s objects, both on
display and in store. Go to
www.museumoflondon.org.uk/collections
The Medieval London website for more
information on the Black Death:
www.museumoflondon.org.uk/medievallondon
Visit the Museum
You can see a video on the Black Death
in the Medieval London gallery at the
Museum of London. Many objects
relating to the Great Plague are on
display in the War, Plague & Fire
gallery at the Museum of London.
Further reading
Horrox, R. (ed.), The Black Death,
(Manchester University Press, 1994)
Porter, S, Lord Have Mercy Upon Us.
London’s Plague Years, (Tempus, 2005)
Ross, C. & Clark, J. (eds.), London. The
Illustrated History, (Penguin, 2008)
Further resources for
teachers/tutors
Explore the images for this topic in the
Picturebank:
www.museumoflondon.org.uk/picturebank

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How to Give an Oral Report

How to Give an Oral Report

Oral reports are often difficult to complete, but luckily there is a good method of completing them. Some research, a good outline, and some practice is sure to improve the outcome

Step # 1

1

Go to Wikipedia and search for your topic. Despite its academic reputation, Wikipedia is definitely a great starting point; just make sure to write down the related footnotes instead of Wikipedia as a source.

2

Read the article through, scanning for related and interesting facts on the topic.

3

As you find the points you'd like to make in your report, paraphrase them in bullet format in a word processor, such as Microsoft Word or Open Office.The reason you should use bullet format is that if you don't have complete sentences to read off a page, you look more human to your audience. You will also have to make sure you know what each bullet point means, forcing you to practice.

4

Open all the external links that the article hyperlinks to, and read them thoroughly. Again, if you find facts you'd like to reference, write them down in bullet format in your word processor. At this step make sure to write down the URLs for any external links you use.

5

If you don't have enough material, search Google for some more sources and information. Answers.com is also a great reference. Otherwise, go to the next step.

6

Compile all your sources into a list, in the format your teacher or professor prefers.

7

Streamline your bullet points as much as possible. Write down the basic point you'd like to make(summarized in one key word, if possible), and any necessary statistics or facts. The bullet point method requires that you know what you are talking about, and that you are able to improvise vocally from sentence to sentence. If you are afraid you won't be great at this, practice before adding more to your bullets.

8

Re-read your outline; when you are confident it is the best possible, print it out.

9

Practice, practice, practice! Get to the point where you are making a speech - and not just reading your paper. If it helps, have a friend critique you.

Tips

·         The best way to learn a speech is to practice it several times over.

·         Remember that you will usually speak faster in front of an audience. Keep this in mind if you have a time limit to aim for.

·         Make eye contact while making your points, and use hand gestures at key points. If you overuse hand gestures, it minimizes the impact you make when you use a hand gesture on the most important point, but a nice median will successfully compliment your voice and eyes.

Warnings

·         Make sure to allot the right amount of time to each project; if it is only worth a small amount in relation to your final grade, don't overdo the report.

·         Don't panic; that will do nothing to help you. Just start, and get as much  done as possible.

How to write a research paper

How to Write a Research Paper

 A research paper can be used for exploring and identifying scientific, technical and social science issues. If it's your first time writing a research paper, it may seem daunting. However, with good organization and clarity of focus, you can make the process easier on yourself.

Method           Step 1 of 4: Choosing Your Topic

                         Pre-writing Process

1.   

1

Ask yourself important questions. 

Although you may be limited by specific classroom or work related guidelines, choosing your topic is the first and most important step in your research paper project. Regardless of whether your topic can be anything you want or has a more rigid rubric, it is important to keep a few questions in mind:

·         Is there enough research available on this topic?

·         Is the topic new and unique enough that I can offer fresh opinions?

·         Is it pertinent to my class/occupation?

2.   

2

Pick something you love. 

Whenever possible, choose a topic that you feel passionate about. Writing about something you enjoy certainly shows in the final product, making it more likely that you will be successful writing a paper about something you enjoy.

3.   

3

Stay original.

 If you are writing a research paper for a class, consider the other students.

·         Is it likely that they will also be writing about your topic?

·          How can you keep your paper unique and interesting if everyone is writing about the same thing?

4.   

4

Get advice.

 If you are struggling to come up with a topic that feels “just right,” ask your professor or coworkers/classmates for advice. They will likely have great ideas that, even if there aren’t options for you to choose, they can inspire you with new ideas. Asking a professor for help may seem frightening, but they want you to be successful with your work, and will do what they can to make that happen.

5.   

5

Don’t be afraid to change your topic. 

If you choose a topic, begin researching, and realize that it isn’t the right decision for you for some reason, don’t fret! Although it requires a bit more time, you have the ability to change your topic even after you begin researching others.

Method 2 of 4:               Researching

1.   

1

Begin your research. 

With a topic selected, the next step is to begin research. Research comes in numerous forms including web pages, journal articles, books, encyclopedias, interviews, and blog posts, among others. Take time to look for professional resources who offer valid research and insight into your topic. Try to use a minimum of five sources to vary your information; never rely on only 1-2 sources.

2.   

2

Look for empirical research.

 Whenever possible, look for peer reviewed empirical research. These are articles or books written by experts in your field of interest, whose work has been read and vouched for by other experts in the same field. These can be found in scientific journals or via an online search.

3.   

3

Visit the library. 

Take a trip to your local library or university library. Although it may seem old fashioned, libraries are chock full of helpful research materials from books to newspapers and magazines to journals.. Don’t be afraid to ask the librarian for help either - they are trained in research and know where everything about your topic is located.

4.   

4

Look online. Using a search engine and picking the top three results isn’t necessarily the best method of researching; use critical thinking to thoroughly read every source and determine if it is legitimate. Websites, blogs, and forums online aren’t required to publish facts only, so make sure that the information you find is trustworthy.

·         Typically, websites that end with .edu, .gov, or .org contain information that is safe to use. That is because these websites belong to schools, the government, or organizations dealing with your topic.

·         Try changing your search query often to find different search results for your topic. If nothing seems to be coming up, it could just be that your search query isn’t matched well with the titles of most articles dealing with your subject.

5.   

5

Use academic databases. 

There are special search engines and academic databases available that search through thousands of peer-reviewed or scientifically published journals, magazines, and books. Although many of these require a paid membership to use, if you are a current student in college you have free access through your university’s membership.

·         Look for databases that cover your subject only. For example, PsycInfo is an academic database that holds nothing but works done by authors in the field of psychology and sociology. This will help you to get  more tailored results than a very general search would.

·         Most academic databases give you the ability to ask for very specific information by presenting multiple search query boxes as well as archives containing only a single type of resource (such as only journal articles or only newspapers). Take advantage of this ability to ask for specific information by using as many of the query boxes as you can.

·         Visit your school library and ask the librarian for a full list of the academic databases they subscribe to, as well as the passwords for each.

6.   

6

Get creative with your research.

 If you find one really awesome book or journal that fits your topic perfectly, try looking in the works cited/bibliography/reference list at the end of it. This should contain many more books and journals that are about your topic as well.

Method 3 of 4:          Making an Outline

1.   

1

Annotate your research.

 Once you’ve gathered all your research, print it out (if it is an online source) and gather post-its or anything you need to mark notes in the books/magazines you are using. This step is very important: read through your research, take notes on what you think is important, and highlight key facts and phrases. Write directly on copies you’ve made, or use slips of paper tucked into pages to mark places of importance.^[3]

·         Do a thorough job annotating to make your outlining and paper-writing easier in the end. Make marks on anything that you think might be remotely important or that could be put to use in your paper.

·         As you mark off important pieces in the research, add your own commentary and notes explaining to yourself where you might use it in your paper. Writing down your ideas as you have them will make writing your paper much easier and give you something to refer back to.

2.   

2

Organize your notes. Annotating your research can take quite a bit of time, but needs to be taken one step further in order to add a bit more clarity for the outlining process. Organize your notes by collecting all of your highlighted phrases and ideas into categories based on topic. For example, if you are writing a paper analyzing a famous work of literature, you could organize your research into a list of notes on the characters, a list of references to certain points in the plot, a list of symbols the author presents, et cetera.

·         Try writing each quote or item that you marked onto an individual note card. That way, you can rearrange and lay out your cards however you would like.

·         Color code your notes to make it easier. Write down a list of all the notes you are using from each individual resource, and then highlight each category of information in a different color. For example, write everything from a particular book or journal on a single sheet of paper in order to consolidate the notes, and then everything that is related to characters highlight in green, everything related to the plot mark in orange, et cetera.

3.   

3

Construct a preliminary bibliography/references page. As you go through your notes, mark down the author, page number, title, and publishing information for each resource. This will come in handy when you craft your bibliography or works cited page later in the game.

4.   

4

Identify the goal of the paper. Generally speaking, there are two types of research paper: an argumentative research paper or an analytic research paper. Each requires a slightly different focus and writing style which should be identified prior to starting a rough draft.

·         An argumentative research paper takes a position on a contentious issue and argues for one point of view. The issue should be debatable with a logical counter argument.

·         An analytic research paper offers a fresh look at an important issue. The subject may not be controversial, but you must attempt to persuade your audience that your ideas have merit. This is not simply a regurgitation of ideas from your research, but an offering of your own unique ideas based off of what you have learned through research.

5.   

5

Determine your audience. Who would be reading this paper, should it be published? Although you want to write for your professor or other superior, it is important that the tone and focus of your paper reflect the audience who will be reading it. If you’re writing for academic peers, then the information you include should reflect the information you already know; you don’t need to explain basic ideas or theories. On the other hand, if you are writing for an audience who doesn’t know much about your subject, it will be important to include explanations and examples of more fundamental ideas and theories related to your research.^[4]

6.   

6

Develop your thesis. The thesis statement is a 1-2 sentence statement at the beginning of your paper that states the main goal or argument of your paper. Although you can alter the wording of your thesis statement for the final draft later, coming up with the main goal of your essay must be done in the beginning. All of your body paragraphs and information will revolve around your thesis, so make sure that you are clear on what your thesis is.^[5]

·         An easy way to develop your thesis is to make it into a question that your essay will answer. What is the primary question or hypothesis that you are going to go about proving in your paper? For example, your thesis question might be “how does cultural acceptance change the success of treatment for mental illness?” This can then determine what your thesis is - whatever your answer to the question is, is your thesis statement.

·         Your thesis should express the main idea of your paper without listing all of your reasons or outlining your entire paper. It should be a simple statement, rather than a list of support; that’s what the rest of your paper is for!

7.   

7

Determine your main points. The body of your essay will revolve around the ideas that you judge to be most important. Go through your research and annotations to determine what points are the most pivotal in your argument or presentation of information. What ideas can you write whole paragraphs about? Which ideas do you have plenty of firm facts and research to back with evidence? Write your main points down on paper, and then organize the related research under each.

·         When you outline your main ideas, putting them in a specific order is important. Place your strongest points at the beginning and end of your essay, with more mediocre points placed in the middle or near the end of your essay.

·         A single main point doesn’t have to be kept to a single paragraph, especially if you are writing a relatively long research paper. Main ideas can be spread out over as many paragraphs as you deem necessary.

8.   

8

Consider formatting guidelines. Depending on your paper rubric, class guidelines, or formatting guidelines, you may have to organize your paper in a specific way. For example, when writing in APA format you must organize your paper by headings including the introduction, methods, results, and discussion. These guidelines will alter the way you craft your outline and final paper.^[6]

9.   

9

Finalize your outline. With the aforementioned tips taken into consideration, organize your entire outline. Justify main points to the left, and indent subsections and notes from your research below each. The outline should be an overview of your entire paper in bullet points. Make sure to include in-text citations at the end of each point, so that you don’t have to constantly refer back to your research when writing your final paper.

 4              Writing Your Paper

1.   

1

Write your body paragraphs. Although it may seem counter-intuitive, writing your introduction first may be more difficult to accomplish than starting with the meat of your paper. Starting by writing the main points (focusing on supporting your thesis) allows you to slightly change and manipulate your ideas and commentary.

·         Support every statement you make with evidence. Because this is a research paper, there shouldn’t be any remarks that you make that cannot be supported by facts directly from your research.

·         Supply ample explanations for your research. The opposite of stating opinions without facts, is stating facts with no commentary. Although you certainly want to present plenty of evidence, make sure that your paper is uniquely your own by adding commentary in whenever possible.

·         Avoid using many long, direct quotes. Although your paper is based on research, the point is for you to present your own ideas. Unless the quote you intend on using is absolutely necessary, try paraphrasing and analyzing it in your own words instead.

·         Use clear segues into adjacent points in your paper. Your essay should flow well, rather than stopping and starting in a blunt fashion. Make sure that each of your body paragraphs flows nicely into the one after it.

2.   

2

Write the conclusion.

Now that you have carefully worked through your evidence, write a conclusion that briefly summarizes your findings for the reader and provides a sense of closure. Start by briefly restating the thesis statement, then remind the reader of the points you covered over the course of the paper. Slowly zoom out of the topic as you write, ending on a broad note by emphasizing the larger implication of your findings.

1. The goal of the conclusion, in very simplified terms, is to answer the question, “So what?” Make sure the reader feels like (s)he’s come away with something.

·         It’s a good idea to write the conclusion before the introduction for several reasons. First of all, the conclusion is easier to write when the evidence is still fresh in your mind. On top of that, it’s recommended that you use up your most choice language in the conclusion and then re-word these ideas less strongly in the introduction, not the other way around; this will leave a more lasting impression on the reader.

3.   

3

Write the introduction.

The introduction is, in many respects, the conclusion written in reverse: start by generally introducing the larger topic, then orient the reader in the area you’ve focused on, and finally, supply the thesis statement. Avoid repeating exact phrases that you already used in the conclusion.

4.   

4

Document your paper. 

All research essays must be documented in certain ways in order to avoid plagiarism. Depending on the topic of your research and your field of study, you will have to use different styles of formatting. MLA, APA, and Chicago are the three most common citation formats and determine the way in-text citations or footnotes should be used, as well as the order of information in your paper.

·         MLA format is typically used for literary research papers and uses a ‘works cited’ page at the end. This format requires in-text citations.

·         APA format is used by researchers in the social sciences field, and requires in-text citations as well. It ends the paper with a “references” page, and may also have section headers between body paragraphs.

·         Chicago formatting is used mainly for historical research papers and uses footnotes at the bottom of each page rather than in-text citations and a works cited or references page.

5.   

5

Edit your rough draft. 

Although it is tempting to simply read over your essay and use the spell-check tool, editing your paper should be a bit more in-depth. Have at least one, but preferably two or more, person/people look over your essay. Have them edit for basic grammatical and spelling errors as well as the persuasiveness of your essay and the flow and form of your paper.

·         If you edit your own paper, wait at least three days before returning to it. Studies show that your writing is still fresh in your mind for 2-3 days after finishing, and so you are more likely to skim over basic mistakes that you would otherwise catch.

·         Don’t ignore edits by others just because they require a bit more work. If they suggest that you rewrite a section of your paper, there is probably a valid reason for their request. Take the time to edit your paper thoroughly.

6.   

6

Create the final draft. 

When you have edited and re-edited your paper, formatted your work according to the subject matter, and finalized all the main points, you are ready to create the final draft. Go through your paper and fix all mistakes, rearranging information if necessary. Adjust the font, line spacing, and margins to meet the requirements set by your professor or profession. If necessary, create an introduction page and a works cited or references page to bookend your paper. The completion of these tasks finalizes your paper!

Make sure to save the paper (in multiple places, for extra security) and print out your final draft.